Introduction to Leadership Concepts Homework Questions

Understanding Leadership

INTRODUCTION

Titis book is about what it takes to be a leader. Everyone, at some time
in life, is asked to be a leader, whether to lead a classroom discus­
sion, coach a children’s soccer team, or direct a fund-raising cam­
paign. Many situations require leadership. A leader may have a high
profile (e.g ., an elected public official) or a low profile (e.g., a volun­

ASK THEteer leader in Big Brothers Big Sisters), but in every situation there are AUTHOR
leadership demands placed on the individual who is the leader. Being

Leadership
a leader is challenging, exciting, and rewarding, and carries with it
many responsibilities. Titis chapter discusses different ways of look­
ing at leadership and their impacts on what it means to be a leader.

LEADERSHIP EXPLAINED

At the outset, it is important to address a basic question: What is lead­
ership? Scholars who study leadership have struggled with this ques­
tion for many decades and have written a great deal about the nature
of leadership (Antonakis, Cianciolo, & Sternberg, 2004; Bass, 1990;
Conger & Riggio, 2007). (See Box 1.1.)

In leadership literature, more than 100 different definitions of lead­
ership have been identified (Rost, 1991). Despite these many defi­
nitions, a number of concepts are recognized by most people as
accurately reflecting what it is to be a leader.

Defining Leadership

What Is Leadership?

0

1

2

3

Contemporary
Leadership
Theories

Behavior
Approach

Situational
Approach

INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP

BOX 1.1 The Evolution of Leadership

Behavior Approach
Leadership has long intrigued humankind
and has been the topic of extensive literature
for centuries. The earliest writings include
philosophies of leadership such as Machiavelli’s
The Prince(l531/2005) and biographies
of great leaders. With the development of
the social sciences during the 20th century,
inquiry into leadership became prolific .
Studies on leadership have emerged from every
discipline “that has had some interest in the
subject of leadership: anthropology, business
administration , educational administration,
history, military science, nursing administration,
organizational behavior, philosophy, political
science, public administration, psychology,
sociology, and theology” (Rost, 1991, p. 45).

As a result, there are many approaches to
leadership. Not unlike fashion, approaches to
leadership have evolved, changed focus and
direction, and built upon one another during the
past century. To understand this evolution a brief

historical view can be helpful:

“Trait Approach
The early trait approach theories were called
“Great Man” theories because they focused
on identifying the innate qualities and
characteristics possessed by great social,
political, and military leaders such as Catherine
the Great, Mohandas Gandhi, Abraham Lincoln,
Moses, and Joan of Arc. Studies of leadership
traits were especially strong from 1900 to the
early 1940s and enjoyed a renewed emphasis
beginning in the 1970s as researchers began to
examine visionary and charismatic leadership. In
the 1980s, researchers linked leadership to the
“Big Five” personality factors while interest m
emotional intelligence as a trait gamed favor in

the 1990s.

In the late 1930s, leadership research began
to focus on behavior-what leaders do and
how they act. Groundbreaking studies by
researchers at The Ohio State University and
the University of Michigan in the 1940s and
1950s analyzed how leaders acted in small
group situations. Behavior approach theories hit
their heyday in the early 1960s with Blake and
Moulton’s (1964) work exploring how managers
use task and relationship behaviors in the
organizational setting.

SitUational Appr08Ch
The premise of this approach is that different
situations demand different kinds of
leadership. Serious examination of situational
approach theories began in the late 1960s
by Hersey and Blanchard ( 1969) and Reddin
(1967). Situational approaches continued
to be refined and revised from the 1970s
through the 1990s (Vecchio, 1987). One
of these, path-goal theory, exam mes how
leaders use employee motivation to enhance
performance and satisfaction . Another
approach, contingency theory, focuses on the
match between the leader’s style and specific

situational variables.

Relational ApprOaCh
In the 1990s, researchers began examining the
nature of relations between leaders and foll owers.
This research ultimately evolved into the Le.adef
Member Exchange (LMX) Theory. LMX Theory
predicts that high-quality relations generate
more positive leader outcomes than low-qualil;y
relations. Research in the relational approach
to leadership continues to generate moderate

interest today.

Chapter 1 Understanding Leadership

“New Leadership” Approach

When these approaches began appearing in the
m1d- l 980s-three decades ago-they were,.

d tan con mue to be, called “new leadership”
approaches (Bryman, 1992). Beginning with the
work of Bas~ (_1985, 1990}, leadership studies
generated v1s1onaryor charismatic leader: h . . F s IP
t eones. rom these approaches devel d
lrlnsformational leadership theory, which
desCribes leadership as a process that changes
people and organizations.

h . ope

Emerging Leadership Approaches

A dive~ ran~e of approaches to leadership is
emerging dunng the 21st century. Currently
aalhentic leadersh~p that looks at the authenticity
of leader.; and thetr leadership is enjoying

ng interest. S1m1larly, the spiritual leadership
approachexamines how leaders use values a
sense of “call ing,,, and membership to motivate

!~llo~ers. ~e~ant leadership emphasizes the
canng pnnc,ple” with leaders as “servants”

who focus on their fol lowers’ needs in to
help these followers become more autonomous
knowledgeable, and like servants themselves. ‘
Gender-based studies have gained much
momentu,:n as women continue to become more
dominant mthe workforce, especially on aglobal
level. The shrinking of the world through technology
has also been illuminated through the study of
cultural andglobal approaches to leadership. 0

The New
This historical timeline is not intended to Leadership
represent these approaches as separate and Approach
d1stmct eras, only to disappear from the picture
when a new theory appears. Instead many of
these theories occur concurrently, b~ilding u on
one another (see Figure 1.1). Even when a c!t .
approach’s ?eriod of popularity has waned, th/m
theory continues to influence further study and
the development of new leadership approaches.

FIGURE 1.1 Development of Leadership Theories Through History

Emerging
New Leadership –
Relational
Situational 11111111111111

Behavioral
Trait lllllllllflllllllllllllllHlllllfllllllfl

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950I 1960 1970I 1980I 1990 2000 201 0 2020
Active

111111111111 111111111111 Less active

Source,Adaptedfr At ‘ , ‘ . . , ernberg, R. J. (Eds.). (2004). The natureofleadership. Thousand Oaks, CA· age, p. 7.n onak1s J. Cianciolo A T & St . S

“Leadership Is a Trait”
f’irsl : lead ershi p is. thought of as a trait A . . . .
qual ity ofan individ I . . . trait is a distinguishing

ua ‘ which is often inherited· Defi . I dershmmmg ea .

4
5 INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP

as a trait means that each individual brings to the table certain quali­
ties that influence the way he or she leads. Some leaders are confi­
dent, some are decisive, and still others are outgoing and sociable.
Saying that leadership is a trait places a great deal of emphasis on the
leader and on the leader’s special gifts. It follows the often-expressed
belief ”leaders are born, not made.” Some argue that focusing on
traits makes leadership an elitist enterprise because it implies that

Leadership only a few people with special talents will lead. Although there may
and Traits be some truth to this argument, it can also be argued that all of us are

born with a wide array of unique traits and that many of these traits
can have a positive impact on our leadership. It also may be possible

to modify or change some traits.

Through the years, researchers have identified a multitude of traits
that are associated with leadership. In Chapter 2 we will discuss
some key leadership traits, and in Chapter 3 we will explain how
strength-based leadership is a variation of trait leadership. Although
there are many important leadership traits, what is most impor­
tant for leaders is having the required traits that a particular situa­
tion demands. For example, a chaotic emergency room at a hospital
requires a leader who is insightful and decisive and can bring calm to
the situation. Conversely, a high school classroom in which students
are bored demands a teacher who is inspiring and creative. Effective
leadership results when the leader engages the right traits in the right

place at the right time.

“Leadership Is an Ability”

In addition to being thought of as a trait, leadership is conceptual­
ized as ~n ability. A person who has leadership ability is able to be
a leader-that is, has the capacity to lead. While the term ability fre­
quently refers to a natural capacity, ability can be acquired. For exam­
ple, some people are naturally good at public speaking, while others
rehearse to become comfortable speaking in public. Similarly, some
people have the natural physical ability to excel in a sport, while oth­
ers develop their athletic capacity through exercise and practice. In
leadership, some people have the natural ability to lead, while others
develop their leadership abilities through hard work and practice.

An example of leadership as ability is the legendary University
of California at Los Angeles basketball coach John Wooden,

Chapter 1 Understanding Leadership

whose teams won seven consecutive National Collegiate Athletic
Association titles. Described first as a teacher and then as a coach,
Wooden implemented four laws of learning into his coaching: expla­
nation, demonstration, imitation, and repetition. His goal was to
teach players how to do the right thing instinctively under great pres­
sure. Less visible or well known, but also an example of leadership
as ability, is the unheralded but highly effective restaurant manager
who, through years of experience and learning, is able to create a
successful, award-winning restaurant. In both of these examples, it is
the individuals’ abilities that create outstanding leadership.

“Leadership Is a Skill”

Third, leadership is a skill. Conceptualized as a skill, leadership is a
competency developed to accomplish a task effectively. Skilled lead­
ers are competent people who know the means and methods for
carrying out their responsibilities. For example, a skilled leader in a
fund-raising campaign knows every step and procedure in the fund­
raising process and is able to use this knowledge to run an effective
campaign. In short, skilled leaders are competent-they know what
they need to do, and they know how to do it.

Describing leadership as a skill makes leadership available to
everyone because skills are competencies that people can learn or
develop. Even without natural leadership ability, people can improve
their leadership with practice, instruction, and feedback from others.
Viewed as a skill, leadership c~n be studied and learned. If you are
capable oflearning from experience, you can acquire leadership.

“Leadership Is a Behavior”

Leadership is also a behavior. It is what leaders do when they are in
a leadership role. The behavioral dimension is concerned with how
leaders act toward others in various situations. Unlike traits, abili­
ties, and skills, leadership behaviors are observable. When someone
leads, we see that person’s leadership behavior.

Research on leadership has shown that leaders engage primarily in
two kinds of general behaviors: task behaviors and process behav­
iors. Task behaviors are used by leaders to get the job done (e.g.,
a leader prepares an agenda for a meeting). Process behaviors are

0
Leadership and Skills

Leadership
Isa Skill

7 6 INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP

used by leaders to help people feel comfortable with other group
members and at ease in the situations in which they find themselves
(e.g., a leader helps individuals in a group to feel included). Since
leadership requires both task and process behaviors, the challenge
for leaders is to know the best way to combine them in their efforts
to reach a goal.

“Leadership Is a Relationship”

0

Another, and a somewhat unusual, way to think about leadership is
as a relationship. From this perspective, leadership is centered on
the communication between leaders and followers rather than on the
unique qualities of the leader. Thought of as a relationship, leader­
ship becomes a process of collaboration that occurs between leaders
and followers (Rost, 1991). A leader affects and is affected by follow­

Leadership and ers, and both leader and followers are affected in tum by the situa­
Relationships tion that surrounds them. This approach emphasizes that leadership

is not a linear one-way event, but rather an interactive event. In tradi­
tional leadership, authority is often top down; in the interactive type
of leadership, authority and influence are shared. When leadership
is defined in this manner, it becomes available to everyone. It is not
restricted to the formally designated leader in a group.

Thinking of leadership as a relationship suggests that leaders must
include f~llowers and their interests in the process of leadership.
A leader needs to be fully aware of the followers and the followers’
interests, ideas, positions, attitudes, and motivations. In addition,
this approach has an ethical overtone because it stresses the need
for leaders to work with followers to achieve their mutual pur­
poses. Stressing mutuality lessens the possibility that leaders might
act toward followers in ways that are forced or unethical. It also
increases the possibility that leaders and followers will work together
toward a common good (Rost, 1991).

“Leadership Is an Influence Process”

0
A final way of thinking about leadership is as an influence process.
This is the perspective that will be emphasized in this book.

Leadership Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a
Defined group ofindividuals to achieve a common goal.

Chapter 1 Understanding Leadership

Defining leadership as an influence process means that it is not a trait
or an ability that resides in the leader, but rather an interactive event
that occurs between the leader and the followers. Influence is central
to the process of leadership because leaders affect followers. Leaders
direct their energies toward influencing individuals to achieve some­
thing together. Stressing common goals gives leadership an ethical Global Leadership

Competencies
dimension because it lessens the possibility that leaders might act
toward followers in ways that use coercion or are unethical.

Finally, in explaining what leadership is, it is important to make a
distinction between leadership and management. In discussing what
leadership is and can be, the concepts of leadership and manage­
ment sometimes overlap. Both leadership and management involve
influence, but leadership is about seeking constructive change, and
management is about establishing . For example, it is often
said that “managers are people who do things right, and leaders are
people who do the right thing.” Since both leaders and managers are
engaged in influencing people toward goal accomplishment, our dis­
cussion in this book will treat the roles of managers and leaders simi­
larly and not emphasize the differences between them.

GLOBAL LEADERSHIP ATTRIBUTES

We probably all wonder at the differences in leadership around the
world. Why do some countries gravitate toward the distributed lead­
ership of a democracy, while others seem content with the hierar­
chical leadership of a monarchy or dictatorship? The definition and
concepts of leadership outlined in this chapter are from an American
perspective. If you were to travel to nations across the world, you Leadership-

Attributeswould no doubt encounter different views of leadership specific to
those ethnic and political cultures.

In 2004, Robert House led a group of 160 researchers in an ambi­
tious study to increase our understanding of the impact culture has
on leadership effectiveness. The GLOBE (Global Leadership and
Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) studies drew on the input of
17,000 people in 62 countries in determining how leadership varies
across the world. Among the many findings generated by the GLOBE
studies was the identification of positive and negative leadership char­
acteristics that are universally accepted worldwide (see Table 1.1).

9
8 INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP

TABLE 1.1 Universal Leadership Attributes

Positive Leader Attributes

Trustworth y Honest
Foresighted

Just
Encouraging

Positive
Plans ahead

Motivator
Builds confidence

Dynamic
Motivational Dependable

Intelligent Effective bargainer
Win-win problem solver

Decisive
Communicative Informed

Administratively skilled Coordinator Team builder
Excellence oriE,nted

Negative Leader Attributes

Noncooperative
Irritable
Loner Asocial

Egocentric
Ruthless

Nonexplicit
Dictatorial

Source: Adapted from House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta , V. (Eds.). (2004). Culture,
leadership, and organizations.- The GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousa nd Oaks, CA: Sage, pp. 677-678. Reprinted
with permission .

The meaning of leadership is complex and includes many dimen­
sions. For some people, leadership is a trait or an ability, for others
it is a skill or a behavior, and for still others it is a relationship
or a process. In reality, leaders hip probably includes components
of all of these dimensions. Each dimension explains a facet of
leadership .

In considering these various definitions of leadership and based on
the results of your Conceptualizing Leadership Questionnaire (page
13), which dimension seems closest to how you think of leadership?

Courage How would you define leadership? Answers to these questions are
important because how you think about leadership will strongly
influence how you practice leadership.

There is a strong demand for effective leadership in society today.
This demand exists at the local and community levels, as well as at
the national level, in this country and abroad. People feel the need
for leadership in all aspects of their lives. They want leaders in their
personai lives, at school, in the work setting, and even in their spir­
itual lives. Everywhere you turn, people are expressing a need for
strong leadership.

When people ask for leadership in a particular situation, it is not
_ 1___ _ __ – 1 …. …. _ ~— – •1- … ~ …1-.. ….. ♦ ..t….”‘…. … .-. r,.., _ _… TI- … t-h.£Jt. _.._ ,-u :• t- …-,.,iri hnn r,::;i,., r~r th ,ct,’tf

Chapter 1 Understanding Leadership

want effective leadership. Effective leadership is intended influence
that creates change for the greater good. Leadership uses positive
means to achieve positive outcomes. Furthermore, people want lead­
ers who listen to and understand their needs and who can relate to
their circumstances. The challenge for each of us is to be prepared to
lead when we are asked to be the leader.

LEADERSHIP SNAPSHOT: Indr a Nooyi , CEO, PepsiCo

The daughter of a
conservative, middle­
class family in
southern India, Indra
Nooyi didn’t seem
destined to one day
run one of the world’s
largest snack food and
beverage companies.
But Nooyi does Just
that as the chief

executive officer and president of PepsiCo,
making her one of the top female executives
in the United States and probably the highest­
ranking woman of Indian heritage in corporate
America.

Nooyi, who grew up in Madras (now Chennai),
India, admits she always pushed social
conventions. She played on an all-girls cricket
team and was a guitarist in a rock band at a time
when it was deemed inappropriate for Indian
girls to do such things. Despite graduating from
college with bachelor’s degrees in chemistry,
math, and physics from Madras Christian
College in 1974 and a master of business
administration from the Indian Institute of
Management Calcutta, Nooyi was reportedly
remembered for being only a “mediocre
student” (Pandey, 2006).

Nooyi’s first job after college was for Tootal, a 0
British textile company in India, but she was Indra Nooyi
hired away as a brand manager for Johnson
& Johnson to oversee the company’s Stayfree
account in lnd1a. ltwasa1obthatwould have
challenged the most seasoned marketing
executive because, at the time, advertising
women’s feminine products was not allowed in
her country {Murray, 2004).

By 1978, Nooyi felt she needed more preparation
for the business world and applied to and was
accepted to the Yale School of Management in
the United States. To her surprise, her parents
agreed to let her go, although it would essentially
make her an unmarriageable commodity in her
culture. She received financial aid from Yale, but
still struggled to make ends meet, working as an
overnight receptionist. She didn’t have the money
to a business suit, so she wore her traditional
sari to work and later in job interviews, choosing
to be herself rather than adhere to expected
cultural norms.

Nooyi did not earn an MBA from Yale, choosing
instead to get a master’s degree in public
and private management. Her first jobs after
graduation were for the prestigious Boston
Consulting Group and Motorola. In 1990, she
joined ASEA Brown Boveri (ABB), a Swiss­
Swedish industrial conglomerate. Her success

(Continued)

10

11

(Continued)

in directing ABB’s North American operations
caught the attention of PepsiCo CEO Wayne
Calloway who wooed her away to become his
company’s chief strategist.

Nooyi quickly left her mark at PepsiCo. She
was the chief deal maker for two of PepsiCo’s
most important acquisitions: the Tropicana
orange juice brand in 1998 and Quaker Oats
1n 2001. The Quaker Oats deal added a huge
range of cereals and snack foods to the PepsiCo
empire. Nooyi also helped the company acquire
beverage maker SoBe, beating out a competing
offer from Coca-Cola. Her deal-making talents
elevated her to the job of PepsiCo’s chief
financial officer in 2000, and a year later she
was given the title of president.

Nooyi’s vision for PepsiCo-that “for any
part of the day, we will have a little snack
for you” (“Power ofTwo,” 2001)-has been
implemented through development of new
products and acquisitions. The company now

Chapter 1 Understanding Leadership

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GLOSSARY TERMS
abihty 4

relationship behaviors 2
authentic leadership 3 servant leadership 3

behavior approach 2 situational approach 2

contingency theory 2 skill 5

“Great Man” theories 2 spiritual leadership 3

leadership 6 task behaviors 5

path-goal theory 2 trait 3

process behaviors 5 trait approach 2

relational approach 2 transformational leadership
theory 3

SUMMARY

Madness and
Leadership

INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP

sells a wide range of foods and beverages from
Mountain Dew and Gatorade to Cap’n Crunch
and Doritos. The company’s 18 brands are sold
in 200 countries, and it employs 198,000
people worldwide.

But the strategist in Nooyi has also foreseen
the effect that growing lifestyle diseases such
as obesity could have on her company. Again,
she has chosen to follow an unconventional
path, looking to create healthier products in an
industry dominated by salt, fat, and sugar. She
invested heavily in the creation of a research and
development lab that took five years to complete,
drawing criticism from stockholders and industry
analysts. So far, the investment has had some
success: developing a m1dcalorie cola, Pepsi
Next, and creating potato chips that taste Just as
salty as the original but have less sodium. The
company also 1s racing to create an all-natural
zero-calorie sweetener for ,ts drinks and other
products, an achievement that will profoundly
change the food and beverage business.

All of us at some time in our lives will be asked to show leader­
ship. When you are asked to be the leader, it will be both demand­
ing and rewarding. How you approach leadership is strongly
influenced by your definitions of and beliefs about leadership.
Through the years, writers have defined leadership in a multitude
of ways. It is a complex, multidimensional process that is often
conceptualized in a variety of ways by different people. Some of
the most common ways of looking at leadership are as a trait, as
an ability, as a skill, as a behavior, as a relationship, and as a pro­
cess. The way you think about leadership will influence the way
you practice leadership.

12

1 . 1 CASE STUDY
– – –

King of the Hill

Denny Hill’s career as a high school swimming
coach didn’t start out well. The seniors on his
team quit in the first season because he required
them to come to all the workouts. The team only
won three meets the whole season. That was

> 40 years ago. Since that time, the high school
a chemistry teacher’s success as a swimming g

coach has been extraordinary; his winnings
include more than 900 boys’ and girls’ dual’)
meets and a phenomenal 31 state titles.

~ Denny is noted for creating a team effort out of
J what is usually considered an individual sport.z He begins every season with a team sleepover,

followed by “Hell Week,” a two-week grueling
regimen in which team members swim at
least 5 miles a workout and 10 miles a day. He
acknowledges this is a bonding experience for
the swimmers, regardless of their skill, because
they are “all in the same boat.”

Denny passes the mantle of leadership onto
hts team members. Seniors are expected to
be mature leaders who inform the freshmen of

Questions

INTRODUCTION TO LEADERSHIP

– -= – ..:::~- ===—-::

–
–

—— –
,

the team goals and expectations. Juniors are
to be role models, while sophomores serve as
quiet leaders who are still learning but have
a foundation in the team culture. Even the
freshmen members have a Job: They are required
to pay attention to the coaches and other team
members as they learn the team’s culture and
what’s expected.

Denny holds a 20-minute team meeting
each Monday where every member has the
opportunity to present a rose or a complamt to
anyone on the team including the coaches. He is
tough on swimmers and makes them work, but
when they need support he is always there to put
an arm around them. Denny also uses humor,
often making jokes that help take the edge off
long, hard workouts.

And despite his teams’ successes, Denny isn’t
about winning; he’s more about preparing to win­
telling his swimmers that by preparing to win,
everything takes care of itself. When you do win,
he says, you’ve done it the right way.

l . What leadership traits account for Denny Hill’s success?

2. How would you describe Denny Hill’s leadership abilities?

3. Leadership includes administrative skills, interpersonal skills, and conceptual skills. How does
Denny Hill stack up on these skilfs?

4. How does Denny Hill integrate task and relationship behaviors In his leadership?

5. From a relational perspective, how would you describe Denny Hill’s leadership?

6. In what way does Denny Hill’s coaching exemplify leadership as an influence process?

Chapter 1 Understanding Leadership
13

1.2 CONCEPTUALIZING LEADERSHIP QUESTIONNAIRE

Purpose

1. To identify how you view leadership

2. To explore your perceptions of different aspects of leadership

Directions

1
· ;~~~ii~~~~i~:ti~~r::~!{;~~~;;~~~i;essions of the word leadership. Based on your experiences with lead- z

2. 1~!:!!~fp~cale below, indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements about 0
~
0
_J
a.
a.

Statement
Strongly
. Strongly

<( disagree Disagree Neutral Agree agree 1. When I think of leadership, I think of a person with special personality traits. 1 2. Much like playing the piano or tennis, leadership is a learned ability 1 3. Leadership requires knowledge and know-how. 4. Leadership is about what people do rather than who they are. 1 5. Followers can influence the leadership process as much as leaders. 6. Leadership is about the process of influencing others. J 7. Some people are born to be leaders. 8. Some people have the natural ability to be leaders. 9. The key to successful leadership is having …