EMPIRICAL STUDIES
Intrapersonal self-transcendence, meaning-in-life and
nurse–patient interaction: powerful assets for quality of life
in cognitively intact nursing-home patients
Gørill Haugan PhD, RN (Associate Professor)1, Unni Karin Moksnes PhD, RN (Associate Professor)1 and
Audhild Løhre PhD (Post Doctor)2
1
Faculty of Nursing Science, Center for Health Promotion Research, HIST, Sør-Trøndelag University College, Trondheim, Norway and
2
Center for Health Promotion Research, Faculty of Teaching and Sign Language Interpretation, HiST, Sør-Trøndelag University College,
Trondheim, Norway
Scand J Caring Sci; 2016
Intrapersonal self-transcendence, meaning-in-life and
nurse–patient interaction: powerful assets for quality
of life in cognitively intact nursing-home patients
Background: Spirituality has demonstrated a significant
impact on quality of life in nursing-home patients. Like-
wise, as essential aspects of spirituality, hope, self-trans-
cendence, and meaning are found to be vital resources to
nursing-home patients’ global well-being. Further,
nurse–patient interaction has demonstrated a powerful
influence on patient’s hope, self-transcendence, and
meaning-in-life, as well as on anxiety and depression.
Aim: The present study investigated the associations of
hope, self-transcendence, meaning, and perceived nurse–
patient interaction with quality of life.
Design and method: In a cross-sectional design, a sample of
202 cognitively intact nursing-home patients in Mid-Nor-
way responded to the Herth Hope Index, the Self-Trans-
cendence scale, the Purpose-in-Life test, the Nurse-Patient
Interaction scale, and a one-item overall measure on qual-
ity of life. Using SPSS ordinal regression, bivariate and
multivariate analyses were conducted with quality of life
as dependent variable.
Results: Controlling for gender, age, and residential time, all
the scales were significantly related to quality of life in the
bivariate analyses. Intrapersonal self-transcendence
showed an exceptional position presenting a very high odds
ratio in the bivariate analysis, and also the strongest associ-
ation with quality of life in multivariate analyses. Meaning
and nurse–patient interaction also showed independent
and significant associations with quality of life.
Conclusion: The associations found encourage the idea that
intrapersonal self-transcendence, meaning-in-life, and
nurse–patient interaction are powerful health-promoting
factors that significantly influence on nursing-home
patients’ quality of life. Therefore, pedagogical approaches
for advancing caregivers’ presence and confidence in
health-promoting interaction should be upgraded and
matured. Proper educational programs for developing inter-
acting skills including assessing and supporting patients’
intrapersonal self-transcendence and meaning-in-life
should be utilised and their effectiveness evaluated.
Keywords: health promotion, assets for quality in life,
spirituality, PIL-20, PIL-10, nurse-patient interaction, nur-
sing home, long-term care.
Submitted 20 April 2015, Accepted 8 October 2015
Introduction
The world’s population is rapidly ageing: in 1980, there
were 378 million people in the world aged 60 or above,
whereas this portion was doubled to 759 million in 2009
(1–3). Moreover, by 2050, the segment of those 80 and
older will be 31 percent, up from 18 percent in 1988 (4).
For many of those 80 and more, an increased need for
healthcare services and long-term care in nursing homes
(NH) will take place in the coming decades.
Background
The NH population is generally marked with high age,
physical impairment, and high mortality. Generally, high
prevalence of chronic illness and functional impairments
Correspondence to:
Center for Health Promotion Research, HiST, Faculty of Nursing
Science, Sør-Trøndelag University College, Postbox 2320, 7004
Trondheim, Norway.
E-mail: [email protected]
1© 2016 Nordic College of Caring Science
doi: 10.1111/scs.12307
characterise this population, representing complex medical
states typified by many different, simultaneous diagnoses
(5). Characteristically, NH patients are marked by frailty
and vulnerability. Systematical registrations throughout
the period from 1997 to 2005 in a Norwegian NH providing
150 beds showed a very stable list of patients’ physical
impairments: approximately nine of ten needed help wash-
ing and dressing and were not capable of walking up a stair-
way. Three of four could not feed themselves, and all
needed help getting to the lavatory, while two of three
patients never read a paper (6). The in-house NH life is insti-
tutionalised, representing loss of social relationships, pri-
vacy, self-determination, and connectedness; life quality
(QoL) is often thought to be strongly compromised (7). A
recent systematic qualitative review of care home life (8)
emphasised the lack of autonomy and difficulty in forming
appropriate relationships with others as the main reasons
for diminished QoL. The dominant NH life themes identi-
fied were as follows: (i) acceptance and adaptation, (ii) con-
nectedness with others, (iii) a homelike environment, and
(iv) caring practices. Accordingly, this review highlighted
the need for relationship-centred approaches to NH care
(ibid.). While representing NH patients’ daily occasions for
connectedness, the nurse–patient relationship might be
crucial to NH patients’ QoL. Recent studies have displayed
significant impact of the nurse–patient interaction on NH
patients’ anxiety and depression (9), as well as the funda-
mental spiritual aspects of hope (10), self-transcendence
(11) and perceived meaning-in-life (12, 13).
Over the past few years, there has been an increas-
ing interest in the importance of spirituality for those
80 and older in care settings. Previous research verifies
the importance of spiritual well-being for physical and
mental health outcomes in the lives of many older
adults (14, 15), in NHs (16–18) and at the end of life
(19–21). Spiritual care has been and continues to be
recognised as an integral part of nursing older people
(22, 23). In the nursing literature, definitions of spiritu-
ality cluster around an individual’s essence as a person,
relationships with others and an infinite being, and the
search for fulfilment, hope, self-transcendence and
meaning-in-life (24–28). Spirituality has shown signifi-
cant impact on QoL in NH patients (16, 22). Spiritual
well-being is described to be a “perception of health
and wholeness”, enhancing self-confidence and self-
esteem in vulnerable populations (29). Furthermore,
spiritual well-being may predict overall life satisfaction
among NH patients (16).
Being a vital aspect of humans’ spirituality, hope is
understood as the act by which the temptation of despair
is actively overcome; this has been largely described in
nursing theories (30, 31). Hope is perceived to be an
available resource for living in the present; an inner
strength regarded as a central aspect of dignified end-of-
lifetime and death among NH patients (32, 33).
Furthermore, as a vital aspect of hope among older
individuals inner strength has been associated with con-
nectedness, firmness, flexibility, creativity, a sense of
competence in oneself yet having faith in others, accept-
ing both the light and the dark side of life, and being the
same person yet growing into a new garment (34–36).
Self-transcendence, the ability to expand one’s rela-
tionship with others and the environment, is identified
as one of the developmental resources that promote
well-being in later adulthood during increased vulnera-
bility (37). Self-transcendence has been found to provide
hope and meaning which helps a person to adapt and
cope with illness. Both interpersonal and intrapersonal
self-transcendence have demonstrated to significantly
affect not only emotional, social and spiritual well-being,
but functional and physical well-being as well among NH
patients (38–40).
As an essential aspect of spirituality, meaning is com-
monly addressed in nursing literature (41) and is seen to
be of particular importance to QoL for many older adults
(14, 15, 42) in NHs (17, 18, 43–45) and at the end of life
(18, 19, 21, 46, 47). Meaning seems to serve as a mediat-
ing variable in psychological (48–54) and physical health
(55) and has been found to be associated with mortality
(56–58), psychosomatic dis s (59), fatigue and over-
all symptoms in breast cancer survivors (60). Meaning
and spiritual well-being are important aspects of mental
well-being in NH patients (42, 61) predicting overall NH
satisfaction (16). Recent research implies that meaning is
important for maintaining not only emotional well-being,
but also physical and functional well-being (62, 63).
In sum, the literature reviewed suggests that spirituality
includes vital QoL resources such as hope, self-transcen-
dence, and meaning. Consequently, we expected hope,
interpersonal self-transcendence, intrapersonal self-trans-
cendence and meaning to positively intercorrelate, as well
as being positively correlated with QoL. However, we did
not know which of these aspects might be the most princi-
pal for NH residents’ QoL. In to competently promote
QoL among NH patients, such knowledge seems essential.
Moreover, the nurse–patient interaction is observed to
foster hope, self-transcendence and meaning, and thereby
influencing on NH patients’ QoL. Finding effective inter-
ventions to support QoL in NH patients requires insight
about how these variables might affect NH patients’ QoL.
Thus, it seems appropriate to examine which of these
aspects should be emphasised in NH care.
Aims
Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the
associations between hope, interpersonal self-transcen-
dence and intrapersonal self-transcendence, meaning,
nurse–patient interaction and QoL in a cognitively intact
NH population. In accordance with previous research and
2 G. Haugan et al.
© 2016 Nordic College of Caring Science
theory, all of these scales were expected to be signifi-
cantly related to QoL. However, we did not know
whether they are equally important or whether any of
them are more outstanding and therefore should be
given the main focus when attempting to increase QoL
among cognitively intact NH patients. Thus, we intended
to test their individual association with QoL by control-
ling for the other scales. The important research question
was as follows: which of these dimensions (hope, inter-
personal self-transcendence and intrapersonal self-trans-
cendence, meaning and nurse–patient interaction) are
the most vital for NH patients’ QoL?
Methods
Design and patient recruitment
The study employed a cross-sectional design. Two coun-
ties in central Norway were selected comprising 48
municipalities in total, of which 25 (at random) were
invited to contribute. In total, 20 municipalities partici-
pated. All the NHs in each of the 20 municipalities were
asked to participate. A total of 44 NHs took part in the
study. Approvals were obtained from the Management
Units at the 44 NHs, the Regional Committee for Medical
and Health Research Ethics in Central Norway
(Ref.nr.4.2007.645), and the Norwegian Social Science
Data Services to maintain a register containing personal
data (Ref.nr 16443).
Method of data collection
A head nurse they knew well approached the NH
patients. The nurse gave both oral and written informa-
tion about their rights as participants and their right to
withdraw from the study at any time. Each participant
provided informed consent. Because this population has
difficulties completing a questionnaire independently,
three trained researchers conducted one-on-one inter-
views in private. To avoid introducing bias into the
respondents’ reporting, researchers with identical profes-
sional background were chosen (RN, MA, trained and
experienced in communication with elderly, as well as
teaching gerontology at an advanced level); they were
trained to conduct the survey interviews as similarly as
possible. A large-print copy of questions and possible
responses was held in front of the participants to avoid
misunderstandings. Inter-rater reliability was assessed by
comparing mean scores between interviewers by means
of Bonferroni-corrected one-way ANOVAs. No statistically
significant differences were found that were not
accounted for by known differences between the areas in
which the interviewers operated. The data were collected
during 2008 and 2009, and the scales used were part of a
questionnaire comprising 130 items.
Sample
Long-term NH care was defined as 24-hour care; short-
term care patients, rehabilitation patients, and patients
suffering from dementia were not included. The inclusion
criteria were as follows: (i) local authority’s assignment
to long-term NH care; (ii) residential time of 6 months or
longer; (iii) informed consent competency recognised by
a responsible doctor and nurse; and (iv) capable of being
interviewed. In total, 250 long-term NH patients met the
criteria and were approached by a head nurse, whom
they knew well. Because 19% declined to participate, the
total sample comprised 202 (81%) of the 250 NH patients
from these 44 NHs.
Measures
Quality of Life was assessed by the QLQ-C15-PAL, a core
palliative care questionnaire (64). The QOL-C15-PAL is
an abbreviated 15-item version of the EORTC QLQ-C30.
The last item assesses global QoL during the last week
and is rated from 1 (very poor) to 7 (excellent) (64). A
Norwegian version of the QLQ-C15-PAL, the EORTC
QLQ-C30 scoring manual and the QLQ-C15-PAL scoring
addendum (65, 66) were used.
Hope was assessed by the Herth Hope Index (HHI)
developed by Key Herth (67) comprising 12 items using
a 4-point Likert response format (from strongly disagree
to strongly agree). Possible scores ranged from 12 to 48,
with higher scores indicating greater hopefulness. Test
items were, for example, “I have a positive outlook
toward life”, “I feel alone” and “I have a deep inner
strength” (Appendix 1). Cronbach’s a in the present
study was 0.76 (Table 1). The HHI (67) was recently vali-
dated among cognitively intact NH patients showing a
good construct validity (68).
Interpersonal self-transcendence and intrapersonal self-trans-
cendence were assessed by the Self-Transcendence Scale
(STS) (37, 69) reflecting expanded self-boundaries (70).
The STS was developed by Pamela Reed and comprises
15 items rated on a four-point Likert-type scale from 1
(not at all) to 4 (very much), with higher scores indicat-
ing higher self-transcendence. The two-factor construct
of self-transcendence (71) was used, comprising ST-1
(interpersonal self-transcendence) and ST-2 (intraper-
sonal self-transcendence). The test items for interpersonal
self-transcendence included questions such as “Having
hobbies and interests I can enjoy”, “Being involved with
other people”, “Sharing my wisdom with others” and
“Having an ongoing interest in learning”. Intrapersonal
self-transcendence covered items such as “Accepting
myself as I grow older”, “Adjusting well to my present
life situation”, and “Accepting death as a part of life”
(Appendix 2). Cronbach’s alpha for ST-1 and ST-2 is
shown in Table 1.
Powerful assets for quality of life 3
© 2016 Nordic College of Caring Science
Meaning-in-life was assessed by the Purpose-in-Life Test
(PIL) developed by Crumbaugh and Maholick (72–74).
The 20 test items included questions such as “My per-
sonal existence is very purposeful and meaningful” and
“In achieving life goals, I have progressed to complete
fulfilment” (Appendix 3). Each statement is scored from
1 to 7 where 4 represents a neutral value, whereas the
numbers from 1 to 7 stretch along a continuum from
one extreme feeling to the opposite kind of feeling. The
range of possible scores is 20–140 and numerically
higher scores reflect increased purposefulness (74). Sev-
eral factor-analytic investigations of the PIL, with mark-
edly differing results, have been published over the
years. A one-factor, different two-factor and three-factor
solutions including a different number of items have
been presented (75). A recent validation of the PIL
among cognitively NH patients (75) supported the for-
merly published two-factor solution comprising ten of
the original 20 items (76, 77). Therefore, we included
both PIL-20 (20 items) and PIL-10 (ten items) in the
ordinal regression analyses. In this study, the Cronbach’s
a was 0.82 and 0.74 for PIL-20 and PIL-10, respectively
(Table 1).
Nurse–patient interaction was assessed by the Nurse-
Patient-Interaction Scale (NPIS) comprising 14 items
identifying essential relational qualities stressed in the
nursing literature (78–84). Haugan et al. (11) developed
the NPIS which is a 10-point scale ranging from 1 (not
at all) to 10 (very much); higher numbers indicate bet-
ter nurse–patient interaction (Appendix 4). Examples of
NPIS items include having trust and confidence in the
staff nurses, the experience of being taken seriously, as
well as experiences of being respected and recognised
as a person, being listened to and feeling good as a
result of nurse–patient interaction. The items were
developed to measure the nursing-home patients’ abil-
ity to derive a sense of well-being and meaningfulness
through the nurse–patient interaction (85–88). The
NPIS was recently validated in NH patients showing
good psychometric properties (11). In this study, a was
0.92 (Table 1). Approvals to use the scales were
obtained.
Statistical analysis
The data were analysed by descriptive and correlational
statistics using SPSS version 20 (IBM: IBM Corp. Released
2011. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 20.0.
Armonk, NY: IBM Corp). Cronbach’s a was computed to
estimate the internal consistency of all measures used.
Using SPSS, proportional odds logistic regression (ordinal
regression) (89) analyses were carried out with QoL as
dependent variable in all the bivariate and multivariate
models. p-values <0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results Descriptive statistics Of the 202 participants, 146 (72.3%) were females and 56 (27.7%) were males. Mean age for females were 87 and for males 82 years, and mean residential time was around two and a half years for both genders. Females reported mean 4.84 and males 5.15 on QoL, and the median was 5.0 for both genders. The six measurement scales showed high to low inter-relations (Table 1). HOPE demonstrated the highest correlations with the other scales, ranging from r 0.25 to r 0.66, indicating that HOPE shared much variation with the others. The 10- item and the 20-item scales of PIL were also strongly correlated, with r 0.87. NPIS turned out to be the most free-standing of the scales with weakest bivariate rela- tions to the other scales; the correlations ranged from r 0.37 with PIL-20 to no significant correlation with ST-1. Cronbach’s alpha for the study variables was good to acceptable (Table 1). Hope, self-transcendence, meaning and nurse–patient interaction scale in relation to QoL Controlling for gender, age and residential time, bivariate associations between each of the scales and QoL as well as multivariate associations were assessed in proportional odds logistic regression analyses (Table 2). Bivariate Table 1 Median, interquartile range (IQR), Cronbach’s alpha and correlation coefficients for the study variables Construct Median IQR Items Cronbach’s Alpha Hope ST-1 ST-2 PIL-20 PIL-10 NPIS HOPE 2.91 0.42 12 0.76 1 ST-1 2.67 1.00 7 0.68 0.60** 1 ST-2 3.00 0.50 7 0.51 0.46** 0.31** 1 PIL-20 4.65 0.91 20 0.82 0.66** 0.43** 0.37** 1 PIL-10 4.60 1.20 10 0.74 0.65** 0.46** 0.33** 0.87** 1 NPIS 8.46 2.29 14 0.92 0.25** 0.09 0.24** 0.37** 0.32** 1 **p-value <0.01. Hope = Herth Hope Index. ST-1 = Interpersonal self-transcendence. ST-2 = Intrapersonal self-transcendence. PIL = Purpose-in- life. PIL-20 = PIL including all 20 items. PIL-10 = PIL including 10 of the original 20 items. NPIS = Nurse–Patient interaction. 4 G. Haugan et al. © 2016 Nordic College of Caring Science analyses (left side of Table 2) showed that participants scoring high on HOPE or ST-2 were eight times more likely to report better QoL than those who scored low on HOPE or ST-2, respectively. Participants who scored high on the other scales had 2-4 times higher odds of reporting better QoL than participants scoring low on the respective scales. All associations were highly significant (p-values <0.01). To explore a possible different impact of PIL-20 and PIL-10 in relation to the other scales, two multivariate analyses were run, one with PIL-20 (middle part of Table 2) and the other with PIL-10 (right part of Table 2). In both analyses, ST-2 showed the strongest individual association with QoL: odds ratio, 3.74, 95% CI 1.52–9.16 with PIL-20 included in the analysis and odds ratio, 3.81, 95% CI 1.56–9.31 with PIL-10 included in the analysis. PIL-20 (middle part of Table 2) was also strongly related to QoL (odds ratio, 2.65, 95% CI 1.54– 4.57), whereas PIL-10 (right part of Table 2) showed a nonsignificant association. Further, NPIS contributed individually to QoL when the other scales were adjusted for; participants with high scores on NPIS were 1.2–1.3 times more likely to report higher QoL than those reporting low scores on NPIS. On the other hand, HOPE and ST-1 showed no individual contributions to QoL in the two multivariate analyses. Discussion The correlations between the different scales were strong (Table 1), indicating that some of the scales measure the same phenomenon. However, a high correlation between PIL-10 and PIL-20 is common sense, since the ten items in PIL-10 are also part of PIL-20. Contrariwise, the high correlations between PIL-20 and HOPE (r = 0.66) as well as between ST-1 and HOPE (r = 0.60) are not uncomplicated. The high correlations indicate that the HOPE concept might share characteristics with the concepts of interpersonal self-transcendence (ST-1) and meaning (PIL-20). Nevertheless, while looking at the items included in the Herth Hope Index (involving a positive outlook towards life, short and long goals, feel- ing alone, able to see the light in the tunnel, feeling scared about the future, having faith that gives comfort, having a deep inner strength, a sense of direction, etc.), the similarity between HOPE and ST-1 (involving having hobbies/interests, being involved with other people, sharing once wisdom, helping others, interest in learn- ing) is not obvious. Therefore, future studies exploring the intercorrelations as well as the wording of these concepts/scales are needed. On the other hand, the simi- larities between some of the HOPE items and PIL-20 are more apparent, while both scales include items involving a sense of direction, goals, purpose, and sort of value and worth. Furthermore, all the six scales demonstrated strong bivariate associations with QoL, especially HOPE and ST- 2. However, in the multivariate analyses, ST-2 was the most outstanding variable, showing that participants scor- ing high on ST-2 were nearly four times more likely to report better QoL. Intrapersonal self-transcendence (ST-2) Accordingly, intrapersonal self-transcendence (ST-2) revealed an exceptional position among the six included scales in relation to QoL; ST-2 presented a very high odds ratio in the bivariate analysis and showed the strongest association with QoL in both of the two multivariate analyses. Thus, intrapersonal self-transcendence (ST-2) comprising, for example, self-acceptance and adjustment appeared to be a key asset for QoL. When individuals are accepting and adjusting well (ST-2), they experience more inner peace; this association was recently demon- strated among NH patients (38). Given that inner peace is seen to be strongly and significantly related to meaning (89, 90), the present results seem plausible and theoreti- cally meaningful. Intrapersonal self-transcendence (ST-2) covers NH patients’ acceptance of oneself as growing Table 2 Proportional odds ordinal regression with Quality of Life as dependent variable Variables Bivariate analyses Multivariate analysis Model PIL-20 Multivariate analysis Model PIL-10 Odds ratio (95% CI) p-value Odds ratio (95% CI) p-value Odds ratio (95% CI) p-value HOPE 8.25 (3.70–18.40) <0.001 1.56 (0.47–5.12) 0.466 2.81 (0.88–8.98) 0.082 ST-1 1.89 (1.18–3.04) 0.008 0.81 (0.45–1.46) 0.488 0.83 (0.46–1.50) 0.541 ST-2 8.04 (3.59–18.00) <0.001 3.74 (1.52–9.16) 0.004 3.81 (1.56–9.31) 0.003 PIL-20 3.95 (2.60–5.99) <0.001 2.65 (1.54–4.57) <0.001 – – PIL-10 2.14 (1.60–2.86) <0.001 – – 1.45 (0.99–2.12) 0.058 NPIS 2.81 (0.88–8.98) <0.082 1.20 (1.00–1.43) 0.047 1.26 (1.06–1.50) 0.010 All models adjusted for gender, age and residential time. Hope = Herth Hope Index. ST-1 = Interpersonal self-transcendence. ST-2 = Intrapersonal self-transcendence. PIL = Purpose-in-life. PIL-20 = PIL including all 20 items. PIL-10 = PIL including 10 of the original 20 items. NPIS = Nurse- Patient Interaction scale. Powerful assets for quality of life 5 © 2016 Nordic College of Caring Science older, accepting death as a part of life, adjusting well to changes in physical abilities and the present life situation, letting others help when this is needed, besides finding meaning in past experiences. These aspects covered by ST-2 are considered as internal attitudes and processes connected with inner resources such as self-confidence, self-esteem and a positive life orientation; for example, self-transcendence has been found to be a mediator of optimism among seriously ill older individuals (92). Accepting death and accepting oneself growing older are considered inner aspects related to personal maturity (37) and intrapersonal dignity (93). Thus, intrapersonal self- transcendence is part of an individual’s personality and personal maturity, but still, it is a resource which can be supported and strengthened from the outside. The intrapersonal self-transcendence (ST-2) also covers the aspect of adjusting well to changes in physical abilities and the present life situation. Adjustment is essential for finding meaning and coping with illness and disabilities (94). NH patients’ self-reported coping mechanisms are reported to include positive attitudes, a sense of reality, family support (95) and meaning-based coping variables such as positive reappraisal and perceived uplifts (96, 97). Hence, a respecting, listening, supporting, understanding and acknowledging nurse–patient interaction is likely to enhance coping, and thus self-acceptance (ST-2) and QoL. Also, a meaningful dialogue about death as part of life might be vital to NH patients’ intrapersonal self-transcen- dence, and thus QoL. However, not all old individuals feel like openly and frankly addressing their inner thoughts about death with caregivers; staff nurses need to be aware of and respect the individual’s needs and preferences. Pos- sibly, some NH patients would rather talk about death to a priest or somebody they know well or count on, than young caregivers who not yet have developed a mature attitude towards death. Meaning and purpose-in-life Meaning (PIL-20) presented a solid association with QoL, whereas, surprisingly, the PIL-10 showed a nonsignificant relation. This indicates that the ten items excluded from PIL-20, that is the original PIL test (Appendix 3), were more noteworthy to NH patients QoL than the ten items kept in PIL-10. The following items were excluded: PIL1 (“I am usually bored – enthusiastic”), PIL4 (“My personal existence is: utterly meaningless, without purpose-purposeful and meaningful”), PIL6 (“If I could choose, I would prefer never to have been born-want nine more lives just like this”), PIL9 (“My life is: empty, filled only with despair-running over with exciting things”), PIL11 (“In thinking over my life, I: often wonders why I exist-always see reasons for being here”), PIL12 (“In relation to my life, the world: completely confuses me-fits meaningfully with my life”), PIL13 (“I am a: very irre- sponsible person-very responsible person”), PIL14 (“Concerning freedom to choose, I believe humans are: completely bound by limitations of heredity and environment–totally free to make all life choices”), PIL15 (“With regard to death, I am: unprepared and frightened-prepared and unafraid”), and PIL16 (“Regard- ing suicide, I have: thought of it seriously as a way out-never given it a second thought”). The themes of …
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