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P
atient safety is considered to be one of the most
important health issues across the world (World
Health Organization (WHO), 2016) and has been
defined as the ‘absence of preventable harm to a
patient and reduction of risk of unnecessary harm
associated with health care to an acceptable minimum’ (WHO,
2017). It has an impact on both patient outcomes and the
healthcare system itself; it is deemed to be one of the credible
measures of a hospital’s performance (Welp et al, 2015), and is
an important factor in ensuring the delivery of high-quality
health care (Rajalatchumi et al, 2018).
Fatigue, burnout, work environment,
workload and perceived patient safety
culture among critical care nurses
Qasim AL Ma’mari, Loai Abu Sharour and Omar Al Omari
WHO (2017) has stressed the importance of identifying
factors that affect patient safety and monitoring improvements
in patient safety. About 43 million patient safety events occur
worldwide every year, with the estimated cost of medication
errors amounting to US $42 billion. This is considered the third
patient safety challenge, after healthcare-associated infection and
safe surgery (WHO, 2017).
Nurses working in critical care units (CCUs) have to be fully
alert to ensure delivery of safe patient care (Scott et al, 2014).
Factors that can have a negative effect on patient safety identified
from literature include fatigue (Barker and Nussbaum, 2011).
For example, nurses who are fatigued are vulnerable to making
errors in clinical judgment and medication administration, factors
that have been linked to adverse patient outcomes (Scott, et al,
2014). Another contributing factor to negative consequences
such as medication errors and patient falls is increased workload
(Magalhães et al, 2013; Carlesi et al, 2017). Nurse burnout has
been linked to decreased quality of care (Nantsupawat et al,
2016; Salyers et al, 2017) and a poor work environment to an
increase in hospital-acquired pressure ulcers (Ma and Park, 2015).
Although patient safety is acknowledged to be a critical factor
in the delivery of health care, few studies have been conducted
in developing countries. For example, just two studies have
been conducted in Oman to assess perceptions of patient safety
(Al-Mandhari et al, 2014; Ammouri et al, 2015). The first study
was published in 2014. Its results were consistent with previous
international studies on patient safety, and emphasised the
importance of teamwork, a no-blame culture and management
support in enhancing patient safety (Al-Mandhari et al, 2014).
A second descriptive study was published the following year
(Ammouri et al, 2015) and explored nurses’ perceptions of their
workplace safety culture. It identified factors that may contribute
to patient safety, which included learning and continuous
improvement, hospital management support, supervisor/
manager expectations, feedback and communication about error,
teamwork, hospital handovers and shift changes. The researchers
recommended that hospitals prioritise these factors in to
enhance the patient safety culture.
To date, no studies have been undertaken among critical care
nurses in Oman to demonstrate a relationship between patient
safety and the hypothesised factors (fatigue, workload, burnout,
and work environment). In view of this dearth of information,
ABSTRACT
A study was conducted to explore whether fatigue, workload, burnout and the
work environment can predict the perceptions of patient safety among critical
care nurses in Oman. A cross-sectional predictive design was used. A sample
of 270 critical care nurses from the two main hospitals in the country’s
capital participated, with a response rate of 90%. The negative correlation
between fatigue and patient safety culture (r= -0.240) indicates that fatigue
has a detrimental effect on nurses’ perceptions of safety. There was also
a significant relationship between work environment, emotional exhaustion,
depersonalisation, personal accomplishment and organisational patient
safety culture. Regression analysis showed that fatigue, work environment,
emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and personal accomplishment were
predictors for overall patient safety among critical care nurses (R2=0.322,
F=6.117, P<0.0001). Working to correct these predictors and identifying
other factors that affect the patient safety culture are important for improving
and upgrading the patient safety culture in Omani hospitals.
Key words: Burnout ■ Fatigue ■ Patient safety ■ Work environment
■ Workload ■ Critical care nurses
Qasim AL Ma’mari, Clinical Nurse Specialist, Medical Unit,
College of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
Loai Abu Sharour, Associate Professor, College of Nursing, AL
Zaytoonah University of Jordan, and Sultan Qaboos University,
Muscat, Oman, [email protected]
Omar Al Omari, Associate Professor, College of Nursing,
Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
Accepted for publication: July 2019
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this study aimed to identify predictors for perceived patient
safety among critical care nurses in two hospitals in the country’s
capital, Muscat. Specifically, the aim was to explore whether
there is a relationship between the variables fatigue, workload,
burnout and work environment, and perceived patient safety
among critical care nurses.
Methods
Design and purpose
A descriptive cross-sectional design was used to assess predictors
of perceived patient safety among critical care nurses working
in Oman.
Sample and setting
The study was conducted in two major government hospitals in
Muscat: the Royal Hospital and the Sultan Qaboos University
Hospital (SQUH), a teaching hospital. All nurses working in
critical care, including neonatal intensive care units (NICUs),
paediatric ICUs, adult ICUs, coronary care units and post-cardiac
surgery units, were invited to participate. This workforce numbers
around 500 nurses. Slovin’s formula (Tejada and Punzalan, 2012)
was used to estimate the sample size required for the study,
using a confidence interval of 95%; this resulted in an estimate
of 222 participants. The survey was subsequently circulated to
300 participants to mitigate for attrition.
Convenience sampling was used. The survey was distributed
between June and September 2018, and responses were received
from 270 participants (90% response rate). The researchers
discussed and provided the CCU managers in each hospital with
an overview of the purposes, methods and significance of the
study. The researcher (QM) then identified participants who met
the study’s eligibility criterion: Omani and non-Omani nurses
who had worked in critical care for at least 6 months. To ensure
anonymity, the researcher approached potential participants and
provided them with an information sheet, which informed them
that a sealed package comprising the consent form and the survey
instrument would be available in the nurses’ changing room.
Those willing to participate were given a week to complete the
questionnaire at their convenience and leave their responses in
a dedicated box, which the researcher then collected from each
unit. This ensured that all responses were anonymous.
Ethical considerations
Approval to undertake the study was obtained from the review
boards of each institution. Permission was also obtained from
the ethical committees of the Omani College of Nursing
(REC/2017-2018/10), the Royal Hospital ethics committee
(SRC#46/2018), and the College of Medicine at SQUH (SQU-
EC/030/18).
Permission to use the tools employed in the study was
obtained from the original authors.
Participation was voluntary, and no identifying data were
collected. Prior to completing the surveys, written informed
consent was obtained from all nurses willing to participate.
Measurement tools
The study used a number of tools to gather a range of data and
to analyse the information related to fatigue, workload, burnout,
and work environment to help predict the perceptions of patient
safety among critical care nurses in selected hospitals in Oman.
Hospital survey instrument
The study administered the Hospital Survey on Patient Safety
Culture (HSOPSC) to evaluate staff views on patient safety in a
hospital setting; the tool was developed for this purpose by the
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (Sorra and Dyer,
2010). It consists of 42 items grouped into 12 dimensions (Box 1).
The survey tool also includes two questions asking participants to
provide an overall patient safety score for their unit and to state
the number of adverse events they have reported over the past
12 months. The outcome dimensions include ‘overall perceptions
of safety’ and ‘frequency of events reporting’ (Sorra et al, 2016).
Most of the dimensions are scored on a 5-point Likert-type
scale to reflect level of agreement, ranging from 1 (‘I strongly
disagree’) to 5 (‘I strongly agree’), with 3 scoring a neutral
(‘I neither agree nor disagree’). Other items are scored on a
5-point frequency scale, ranging from 1 (‘never’) to 5 (‘always’).
The survey includes both positively and negatively worded
items, so the negative items were reverse coded. In this study, the
instrument achieved a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.85, making it
a valid and reliable tool. It is worth noting that, because the study
was carried out within a culture that differs from that of Western
countries, this may well have affected the Cronbach score.
Maslach survey
The study participants’ experience of burnout was evaluated
using the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Human Services Survey
(MBI-HSS). The MBI was originally devised by Christina
Maslach in 1981 (Maslach et al, 2019) with a number of versions
subsequently developed to focus on more specific groups,
including the MBI-HSS, which is used with healthcare staff
and related professional groups. It consists of 22 items across
three unique dimensions of burnout:
■ Emotional exhaustion (EE): 9 items that measure feelings of
being emotionally exhausted at work
■ Depersonalisation (DP): 5 items that are intended to measure
an unfeeling and impersonal response towards patients
■ Personal accomplishment (PA): 8 items measuring feelings
Box 1. The 12 dimensions of the Hospital Survey on
Patient Safety Culture
■ Communication openness
■ Feedback and communication about error
■ Frequency of events reporting
■ Handovers and shift changes
■ Management support for patient safety
■ Non-punitive response to error
■ Organisational learning—continuous improvement
■ Overall perceptions of safety
■ Staffing
■ Supervisor/manager expectations and actions promoting
safety
■ Teamwork across hospital units
■ Teamwork within hospital units
Source: Sorra et al, 2016
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of competence and successful achievement in one’s work.
The 7-point frequency scale for each dimension is as follows:
■ 0: never
■ 1: a few times a year or less
■ 2: once a month or less
■ 3: a few times a month
■ 4: once a week
■ 5: a few times a week
■ 6: every day.
In the current study, the results indicated that the MBI-HSS
was a valid and reliable tool on two of the dimensions, with
Cronbach alpha values for PA of 0.74 and EE of 0.86; the
Cronbach’s alpha for DP was lower, with a value of 0.66. This
lower value could be due to the cultural differences between
the Western culture within which the scale was developed and
Oman where the study was carried out.
Fatigue assessment scale
The Fatigue Assessment Scale (FAS) was developed by
Michielsen et al (2003) and consists of 10 items. Five questions
on the scale reflect physical fatigue and five mental fatigue.
The 5-point scoring ranges from 1 (‘never’) to 5 (‘always’).
The total can range between 10 and 50. A total of less than
22 indicates no fatigue, whereas a score that is equal to or
greater than 22 indicates fatigue.
In this study, the instrument showed acceptable internal
consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.76.
NASA task load index
The study used the space agency NASA task load index (NASA
TLX) to measure subjective workload. It is a multidimensional
tool consisting of six items that was developed by the Human
Performance Group at the NASA Ames Research Center (Hart
and Staveland, 1988). It provides an overall workload score based
on a weighted average of ratings on six subscales:
■ Mental demand
■ Physical demand
■ Temporal demand
■ Performance
■ Effort
■ Frustration.
Each dimension is scored over a 100-point scale, which is
subdivided into 20 steps of 5 points each. Overall workload
is represented by a combination of the six dimensions (Hart
and Staveland, 1988).
In the current study, the results indicated that NASA TLX was
a valid and reliable tool, with a Cronbach alpha value of 0.71.
Practice Environment Scale of the Nursing Work Index
Participants’ work environments were evaluated using the
Practice Environment Scale of the Nursing Work Index (PES-
NWI), which consists of 31 items across five subscales (Lake,
2002); the PES-NWI measures dimensions of a nurse’s work
environment (Box 2) (Gabriel, et al, 2013). The scoring is based
on a 4-point Likert scale: 1 (‘strongly agree’), 2 (‘agree’), 3
(‘disagree’) and 4 (‘strongly disagree’) (Gabriel et al, 2013). The
composite is calculated as the mean of the five subscale scores
(Lake, 2002).
In the current study, the results indicated that the PES-NWI
was a valid and reliable tool, with a Cronbach alpha value of 0.96.
Demographic data
Demographic data were collected via a self-reported
questionnaire, which elicited information on participants’ age,
gender, educational level, income, nationality, hospital type,
experience in years, and weekly working hours.
Statistical analysis
The statistical software package SPSSv23 was used to manage and
analyse the data. Data cleaning and verification were performed
prior to undertaking the analyses. Descriptive analysis included
the mean, standard deviation (SD), frequency (F) (defined as the
number of individuals who gave the same answer) and percentage.
Analysis was undertaken using Pearson’s coefficient (r) to
identify correlations between each of the independent variables
(fatigue, workload, burnout, and work environment) and the
dependent variable (overall perception of patient safety). Pearson’s
r is used to measure the statistical relationship, or association,
between two continuous variables (Polit and Beck, 2008). It
provides information about the magnitude of the association, or
correlation, as well as the direction of the relationship.
The variables that showed correlation with the patient
safety culture were included in the regression model. In the
study reported here, the hypothesised dependent variable
(overall perception of patient safety) was measured as a single
continuous variable; the hypothesised independent variables
(fatigue, workload, burnout, and work environment) were also
measured as continuous variables. Simple multiple regression
analyses were conducted and are described in this article.
Results
Sample characteristics
A total of 270 participants were included in the study from
SQUH and the Royal Hospital. Most nurses were female
(n=232; 85.9%) and 14.1% (n=38) were male. The majority
of participants had a bachelor’s degree (62.6%) and only 4.1
% had a postgraduate degree. Participants’ ages ranged from
24 to 56 years (mean=33.06, SD=5.82). Most of the nurses
were not Omani nationals (81.5%)—they were from the
Philippines and India. Participants’ years of experience in
Box 2. Subscales on the Practice Environment Scale of
the Nursing Work Index
Five dimensions of the nurses’ work environment No of items
Nurse participation in hospital affairs 9
Nursing foundations for quality of care 10
Nurse manager ability, leadership and support 5
Staffing and resource adequacy 4
Collegial nurse–physician relations 3
Source: Gabriel et al, 2013
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their units ranged from 1 to 30 years (mean=7.01, SD=5.05).
Participants’ characteristics are presented in Table 1.
Correlations between overall perception of patient
safety, fatigue, workload, work environment and
burnout
Pearson correlation analysis was undertaken to determine the
relationship between the study variables (fatigue, burnout, work
environment, and workload) and overall perception of patient
safety. Normality tests were performed, and each sample was
independent of the other, which allows for the use of Pearson’s
correlation. Pearson’s r results showed that fatigue had a
detrimental effect on the overall perception of patient safety
culture (r =-0.240, P<0.01). There was a significant relationship
between the work environment (r =0.127, P<0.05), emotional
exhaustion (r =-0.168, P<0.01), depersonalisation (r =-0.258,
P<0.0001), personal accomplishment (r =0.159, P<0.01), and
overall perception of patient safety. There was also a non-
significant negative relationship between workload (r =-0.056)
and overall perceived patient safety, but this was not statistically
significant (P>0.05) (Table 2).
Multivariate results between overall perception of
patient safety, nurses’ fatigue, work environment and
burnout
A standard multiple regression (R2) analysis was used to establish
the relative contribution of the hypothesised predictors (fatigue,
work environment and burnout) on overall perceived patient
safety culture. A structured, three-phase approach was used to
achieve a parsimonious regression model for this sample.
First, statistical assumptions related to normality (histogram
and scatterplot were used), linearity, heteroscedascity and
independence of residuals were assessed. Second, the independent
variables that showed a significant correlation with overall
perception of patient safety were entered into the initial
regression model. Third, only the variables that were correlated
in the initial regression model were entered into the parsimonious
regression model. This regression analysis was conducted to
determine the magnitude of the interactions of independent
variables in relation to the correlation matrix, beta weights and
their significance level (t statistic and P value).
The independent variables that were correlated with overall
perception of patient safety in the bivariate analyses (fatigue, work
environment, EE, DP and personal PA) were included in the
initial regression model. Regression analysis showed that nurses’
fatigue, their work environment, EE, DP and PA were predictors
for patient safety culture as perceived by critical care nurses
working in Oman (R2=0.322, adjusted R2=0.087; F=6.117,
P<0.0001). These predictors accounted 32.2% of the variance
in the overall perceptions of patient safety. Table 3 presents the
regression results.
Discussion
This study was conducted to investigate the predictors of
perceived patient safety among critical care nurses in two hospitals
in Oman, and to identify to what extent these variables (fatigue,
burnout, work environment and workload) predict how nurses
participating in the study perceive patient safety.
The results showed that fatigue had a detrimental effect on
nurses’ overall perceptions of patient safety. This is in line with
the results of previous studies that examined nurses’ fatigue
and its effect on performance. Previous work has shown that
Table 2. Correlation between study variables and overall perception of
patient safety (n=270)
Variable Pearson correlation (r)
Fatigue -0.240**
Work environment 0.127*
Workload -0.056
Burnout subscales
Emotional exhaustion -0.168**
Depersonalisation -0.258**
Personal accomplishment 0.159**
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Table 1. Characteristics of study participants (n=270)
Variable Number of
participants (%)
Mean (SD)
Gender
Male
Female
38 (14.1)
232 (85.9)
Nationality
Omani
Non-Omani
50 (18.5)
220 (80.5)
Working hospital
Sultan Qaboos University Hospital
Royal Hospital
130 (48.1)
140 (51.9)
Working units
Paediatric intensive care unit (PICU)
Cardiac coronary unit (CCU)
Neonatal intensive care unit (NICU)
Intensive care unit (ICU)
Cardiac intensive care unit (CICU)
55 (20.4)
28 (10.4)
45 (16.7)
134 (49.6)
8 (3.0)
Level of education
Diploma
Bachelor’s degree
Postgraduate degree
90 (33.3)
169 (62.6)
11 (4.1)
Working time per week (hours) 36.84 (3.19)
Age (years) 33.06 (5.82)
Experience in current unit (years) 7.01 (5.05)
Monthly income (Omani Rial) (1 OMR=£2) 1069 (291.6)
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fatigue affects nurses’ neurocognitive functioning and limits their
work performance, which in turn has an effect on patient safety
(Geiger-Brown et al, 2012). Nurses’ fatigue has been recognised as
a threat to nurse and patient safety (American Nurses Association,
2014). In addition, nurses’ mental fatigue has been linked to the
severity of medical errors (Saremi and Fallah, 2013). Moreover,
the results of the study reported here were consistent with the
findings of research showing that high levels of nurse fatigue
have a negative association with performance, which affects
patient safety (Barker and Nussbaum, 2011).
The study results revealed that nurses’ workloads were not
correlated with the overall perceptions of patient safety. This
might be because both hospitals:
■ Comply with international guidance on nurse:patient ratio,
which is 1:1 in critical care units (Ehikhametalor et al, 2019)
■ Their staff benefit from attending lectures on how to manage
work and time, presented by a specialist brought in by the
hospital’s administration
■ The standard working week does not exceed 40 hours,
so there was no association between workload and overall
perception of patient safety.
Studies in US hospitals (Geiger-Brown and Trinkoff, 2010)
reported that nurses who worked more than 40 hours a week
have a significant risk of making errors, which ultimately affects
patient safety. Although the findings of the current study show
no significant relationship between workload and mortality rates
(Morales et al, 2003), other studies have linked workload with
increased incidence of events such as patient falls, central-line
infections and medication errors (Seynaeve et al, 2011; Magalhães,
et al, 2013; Carlesi et al, 2017). This may be related to the fact
that in these studies the nurse:patient ratio per shift differed
from that in the current study, resulting in increased workload,
which had a negative impact on patient safety.
Further findings from this study indicated that nurses’ work
environment correlated positively with overall perceptions of
patient safety. These results are in line with the findings of a
systematic literature review (Stalpers et al, 2015) undertaken
in Western countries such as the USA, New Zealand and
the UK between 2004 to 2012 that assessed the association
between features of the work environment and patient outcomes
(delirium, malnutrition, pain, patient falls and pressure ulcers).
The result of the review found a significant relationship between
the work environment and nurse-sensitive patient outcomes
(Stalpers et al, 2015). Previous systematic reviews (Lang et al,
2004; Mallidou et al, 2011) found that the features of a good
work environment included:
■ Collaboration between nurses and physicians, which resulted
in fewer patient falls and pressure ulcers
■ Higher levels of nurse education
■ The employment of nurses with more experience.
These three features promoted a good working environment
and had a significant link with patient safety (Stalpers, et al,
2015). Other studies have shown an association between a good
working environment and the quality of nursing care (Ma et al,
2015; Wei et al, 2018), and improved patient safety outcomes
(Kirwan et al, 2013). The current study findings were consistent
with these results. Therefore, there is a need to maintain a positive
work environment by providing staff with continuing education
opportunities and promoting multidisciplinary teamworking
to ensure high levels of patient safety (Ammouri et al, 2015).
The results of the current study showed that EE had a negative
correlation with the overall perception of patient safety. This is
in line with previous research showing an association between
high burnout scores and poor scores on patient safety (Profit et
al, 2014; Vifladt et al, 2016; Johnson et al, 2017).
There is a need to identify interventions to prevent and
treat emotional exhaustion among nurses. This includes
providing programmes such as an 8-week mindfulness-based
stress reduction course reported by Cohen-Katz et al (2005)
that included computer-based self-awareness and mindfulness
training (Maslach and Leiter, 2005). Nurses can also benefit from
interventions that take into account the wider picture, such as
nurses’ work and family relationships, and that use approaches that
can help nurses to self-care and to deal with difficult emotions.
Further interventions can include offering counselling services
to reduce exhaustion, thereby helping to prevent burnout and
improve patient safety (Henry, 2014).
DP also correlated negatively with overall perceptions of
patient safety. The findings of the current study are in line with
research demonstrating negative correlation between patient
safety and depersonalisation (Profit et al, 2014; Vifladt, et al,
2016). The findings are also consistent with a study that showed
Table 3. Multiple regression analysis of selected variables (fatigue, work environment, emotional exhaustion,
depersonalisation and personal accomplishment) on overall perception of patient safety culture (n=270)
Predictor Standardised
coefficients beta
Standard error
(SE)
t 95.0 % CI* for beta
Lower bound Upper bound
Fatigue -0.14 0.03 -1.65 -0.11 0.01
Work environment 0.05 0.01 0.79 -0.01 0.03
Burnout subscales
Emotional exhaustion 0.09 0.02 0.93 -0.02 0.05
Depersonalisation -0.23 0.03 -2.86 -0.14 -0.03
Personal accomplishment 0.13 0.01 2.07 0.00 0.05
R2 32.2% dependent variable: overall perception of patient safety; * CI = confidence interval
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that there was a negative relationship between nurse burnout
and nurses’ perceptions of the patient safety culture. The results
indicated that burnout was linked to lower perceptions regarding
patient safety (Halbesleben et al, 2008).
PA, the third subscale for burnout, positively correlated with
overall perceptions of patient safety in the current study. This
echoes the results of a study showing that high levels of burnout
are associated with perceptions of lower levels of patient safety
(Vifladt et al, 2016).
The findings presented in this article have implications
for the nursing profession and health policymakers, managers
and nursing administrators. Identification of predictors for
perceptions of patient safety is vital in to put strategies in
place to change attitudes and enhance patient safety. The findings
can be used as a baseline and as a source of information that
future research studies can build on. In addition, the concept of
promoting a culture of patient safety should be incorporated in
the undergraduate nursing curriculum as a key subject.
The research reported here has limitations: its cross-sectional
nature constrains the ability to interpret the causal relationships
between the study variables and the collected data; these were
self-reported and therefore may have been subject to bias. It
was therefore not possible to evaluate the causal relationship
between the independent and dependent variables. However,
the researcher sought to provide an initial understanding of the
variables that predict the overall perception of patient safety
culture among critical care nurses working in Oman.
It should be noted that cultural differences are likely to have
affected the internal consistency of the tools used because these
would have originally been developed within the context of
Western cultures. This may account for the differences and lower
internal consistency values calculated in this study. For example,
Eiras et al (2014) showed …
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