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6/23/21, 8:01 AMModule 2: Methods of Ethical Analysis – IFSM 304 6982 Ethics in Information Technology (2215)

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Module 2: Methods of Ethical Analysis

Module 2: Methods of Ethical Analysis

Topics

Applica!on of Ethical Theories

Methods for Ethical Analysis

Applica!on of Ethical Theories

In module 1, we acquired a founda!on in classical ethical theories. In this module, we will learn how to apply this

knowledge to ethical challenges in today’s business world and, more specifically, to the area of informa!on

technology.

As we learned in module 1, the main tradi!onal ethical theories tend to be either rule-based (deontological) or

consequen!alist (teleological). Both types of theories provide a framework for deciding whether ac!ons are right,

depending upon the consequences that result from the ac!on (consequen!alist) or whether the ac!on follows the

relevant rules for ethical behavior (deontological). Tradi!onal ethical theories were intended to apply universally to

ethical dilemmas and obviously didn’t factor in issues such as marketplace compe!!on, stockholders, and today’s

ever-changing world of informa!on technology. Today’s IT manager needs to be able to address ethical issues and

to find resolu!ons in concrete business terms rather than engage in a philosophical ethical debate. However, we

can use those theories to guide our ethical decision-making process.

In addi!on to the ethical theories already presented, business ethics a”empts to take tradi!onal ethics and apply

them prac!cally to a business context. The norma!ve theories of business ethics (NTBE), introduced to the

informa!on systems community in large part by Smith and Hasnas, provide three basic approaches to ethical

problems: stockholder, stakeholder, and social contract theories (Smith, 2002). In this sec!on, we will introduce

those theories as well as make connec!ons to classical theory.

Norma!ve Theories of Business Ethics

As its name indicates, the stockholder theory of NTBE focuses on making ethical decisions that benefit

stockholders. According to this theory, because stockholders have invested in the company for their own profit,

ac!ons taken by the company should be focused on benefi!ng the bo”om line. A manager or employee has a

responsibility to use corporate resources in ways that do not take away from the stockholders’ benefits.

IFSM 304 6982 Ethic… Tasian Berryman

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responsibility to use corporate resources in ways that do not take away from the stockholders’ benefits.

Stockholder theory instructs managers to act within legal constraints. It does not instruct or encourage managers

to ignore ethical constraints.

Stakeholder theory expands a manager’s responsibility beyond the stockholders to include anyone with an interest

in the firm. This could include employees, customers, stockholders, and poten!ally even compe!tors. Given that

there is a poten!al conflict among the interests of the various stakeholders, the manager’s challenge is to balance

those interests and to provide the best possible solu!on that does not substan!ally infringe on any individual

stakeholder group.

According to social contract theory, businesses have ethical obliga!ons to benefit society by fulfilling customer

and employee interests within the generally accepted rules or codes. If there were a hypothe!cal contract between

society and a group of individuals who wished to establish a business, what would the la”er need from society—

and what would society expect in return? The terms of this hypothe!cal contract would outline both those sets of

expecta!ons. Therefore, in giving the group of individuals rights to act as an organiza!on, use resources, and hire

employees, a society would have expecta!ons related to fair treatment of employees, appropriate uses of natural

resources, and so on. (Smith, 2002).

Figure 2.1 illustrates the various links between business ethics and tradi!onal ethical theories to show the

con!nuing relevance of the la”er. To find out more about the connec!ons between NTBE and tradi!onal ethics,

click on the !tles under Norma!ve Theories of Business Ethics and read the informa!on contained in the pop-up.

Figure 2.1

Linkages between Tradi!onal Ethical and Business Ethics Frameworks

(Adapted from Smith, H. J. (2002). Ethics and Informa!on Systems: Resolving the Quandaries. The DATABASE for

Advances in Informa!on Systems (Summer 2002), p. 5.)

As you can see from the do”ed lines in figure 2.1, the modern and tradi!onal elements do have connec!ons and

rela!onships despite their various origins and applica!ons. As you become more familiar with each of these areas,

the similari!es and differences will become clearer.

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Methods for Ethical Analysis

Now that you’ve had some prac!ce in working through an ethical decision-making scenario, let’s look at various

structured approaches for addressing such situa!ons. There are several ways to systema!cally approach an ethical

dilemma. Each has merits, and each will result in an ethical decision if straigh$orwardly and honestly applied. As

you will see, the various approaches are similar yet have somewhat different slants.

Reynolds Seven-Step Approach

George Reynolds uses a seven-step ethical decision-making approach that is summarized in table 2.1.

Table 2.1

Reynolds’ Seven-Step Ethical Decision-Making Approach

Steps Descrip!on

1. Get the facts
Before proceeding, ensure that you have assembled the relevant facts regarding the ethical

issue that you’re addressing.

2. Iden!fy the

stakeholders

Iden!fy who is impacted by this situa!on and its subsequent resolu!on. Define what their role

is as well as what would be the best-case outcome for each stakeholder group.

3. Consider the

consequences

What are the benefits and/or harm that could come from your decision to you individually, the

stakeholders, and the organiza!on as a whole?

4. Evaluate the

various guidelines,

policies, and

principles

First look to any applicable laws, then to any exis!ng corporate policies, ethical codes, and

individual principles. Look at the applica!on of tradi!onal ethical theories as well as Norma!ve

Theories of Business Ethics.

5. Develop and

evaluate op!ons

You may iden!fy several possible solu!ons and may find it useful to support each with key

principles that support the recommenda!on. Your chosen solu!on should be ethically

defendable and, at the same !me, meet the stakeholder and organiza!onal needs and

obliga!ons.

6. Review your

decision

Review your decision in rela!onship to your personal and the organiza!on’s values. Would

others see this as a good and right decision?

7. Evaluate the

results

Did the final outcome achieve the desired results? This is an important step to help develop

and increase your decision-making abili!es.

(Adapted from Reynolds, G. W. (2003). Ethics in Informa!on Technology, pp.115-118.)

Kidder’s Nine-Steps

In his book How Good People Make Tough Choices, Rushworth Kidder presents a similar process; however, he

defines four dilemmas by which various moral issues could be categorized (Kidder, 1995, p.18).

Truth versus loyalty

Individual versus community

Short-term versus long-term

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Short-term versus long-term

Jus!ce versus mercy

Kidder’s Nine-Steps are:

1. Recognize that there is a moral issue.

2. Determine the actor (whose moral issue is it?).

3. Gather the relevant facts.

4. Test for right-versus-wrong issues.

5. Test for right-versus-right paradigms (what sort of dilemma is this?).

6. Apply the resolu!on principles (ends-based, rule-based, or care-based).

7. Inves!gate the “trilemma” op!ons (look for common ground or compromise).

8. Make the decision.

9. Revisit and reflect on the decision. (Kidder, 1995, p. 183-187)

Kidder places “recognize that there is a moral issue” as the first step in the analysis for two reasons. First, it helps

to ensure that issues receive the a”en!on required. Secondly, it encourages a person to adequately address moral

ques!ons and dis!nguish moral issues from other situa!ons involving social conven!ons or contradictory values

that could be “economic, technological, or aesthe!c” rather than moral issues (Kidder, 1995, p. 183). A%er

evalua!ng for legal compliance, Kidder advocates some common sense checks such as “How would you feel if

what you are about to do showed up tomorrow morning on the front pages of the na!on’s newspapers?” Then, he

evaluates the issue to iden!fy which of the four dilemmas listed above apply to gain be”er clarity around the

dilemma, iden!fying the conflict at hand. (Kidder, 1995, p. 184).

Spinello’s Seven-Step Process

Richard Spinello provides a similar seven-step process for ethical analysis designed specifically for IT professionals,

and it is geared toward development of public policy and law. His sixth step entails adding an original norma!ve

conclusion: what should happen? His seventh step includes the ques!ons: “What are the public-policy implica!ons

of this case and your norma!ve recommenda!ons? Should the recommended behavior be prescribed through

policies and laws?” This approach can be useful for IT organiza!ons seeking to be”er structure and define policies

and procedures (Spinello, 1997, p. 45).

Here are all Seven-Steps:

1. Iden!fy and formulate the basic ethical issues in each case. Also, consider legal issues and whether ethical and

legal issues are in conflict.

2. What are your first impressions, your moral intui!on about the problem?

3. Consult appropriate formal guidelines, the ethical and/or professional codes.

4. Analyze the issues from the viewpoint of one or more of the three ethical frameworks.

5. Do the theories lead to a single solu!on, or do they offer compe!ng alterna!ves? If compe!ng, which

principle or avenue of reasoning should take precedence?

6. What is your norma!ve conclusion—what should happen?

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6. What is your norma!ve conclusion—what should happen?

7. What are the public-policy implica!ons of this case and your norma!ve recommenda!ons? Should the

recommended behavior be prescribed through policies and laws?

Many common business ac!vi!es, such as process improvement, problem solving, and project management, have

defined approaches to support their process. To effec!vely make ethical decisions, it also is extremely useful to

have a structure to approach the problem. As a beginning step, have an understanding of the available

methodologies for approaching the issue in an objec!ve manner. Eventually, skill and experience in applying the

process will enable you to explain your process and subsequent recommenda!ons to other stakeholders.

One of the challenges for those working in IT is the lack of precedence in some situa!ons. The more you can apply

a well-grounded methodology when faced with a new or ambiguous ethical dilemma, the greater the likelihood

that you can come to an ethical solu!on that will effec!vely balance individual, organiza!onal, and/or social

concerns with good business.

Ul!mately, you need to use an analy!cal approach that works for you and for your organiza!on. It may be one of

the approaches we’ve discussed, or it may be a hybrid. Individual values will also drive the approach. In addi!on to

these theories, corpora!ons and professional associa!ons have a”empted to provide guidance through corporate

codes of conduct or professional codes of ethics. Corporate codes of conduct typically are intended to apply to all

employees and, therefore, do not specifically address IT issues. However, some IT organiza!ons establish

addi!onal policies related to so%ware use and so on. Professional associa!ons, such as the Associa!on for

Compu!ng Machinery (h”p://www.acm.org/serving/se/code.htm) (ACM), have established code of ethics for its

members to help guide their ac!vi!es.

Many of the ethical issues that arise within the field of informa!on technology fall into similar areas. Richard

Mason, a professor in Management Informa!on Systems, has iden!fied four ethical areas in the Informa!on Age

that have been widely accepted as key issues (Mason, 1986):

Privacy

Accuracy

Property

Accessibility

These will be discussed in more detail in module 3.

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Computer Ethics – – Please go to My Tools ->

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assessment.

With the informa!on presented in this module, you should be able to apply a structured approach to an ethical

dilemma. The scenario presented below under Try This 2.3 will provide you with an opportunity to do just that.

When you’ve completed that exercise, you’ll be ready to move on to the Self-Assessment.

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References

Barquin, R. C. (1992). Ten commandments of computer ethics. Retrieved August 19, 2005, from

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